class: center, middle # AI in Digital Entertainment ### I Ciclo 2019 --- # Instructor and Schedule * Instructor: Dr. *Markus* Eger * Email: <a href="mailto:markus.eger.ucr@gmail.com">markus.eger.ucr@gmail.com</a> * Office hours: Tuesday, Friday, 2-2.55pm * Class: Friday, 5-9pm --- # About Me * Originally from Austria --- # About Me <img src="/CI-2700/assets/img/austria.png" width="70%"/> --- # About Me * Originally from Austria * BSc and MSc in Computer Science from University of Technology Graz, Austria * PhD in Computer Science from NC State University, USA * Hablo un poco de Español * Games: Smite, Guild Wars 2, Incremental Games * I also like board games (Dominion, Pandemic, Ricochet Robots, ...) --- # About Me <img src="/PF-3341/assets/img/cats.jpg" width="50%"/> --- # About My Research - For my dissertation ("Intentional Agents for Doxastic Games") I worked on games involving communication - Hanabi: Cooperative card game with restricted communication - One Night Ultimate Werewolf: Unrestricted communication, featuring lies and deception - I also worked on narrative generation for a bit, particularly detective stories - The basis for my work were Dynamic Epistemic Logic, Planning, and Intentionality --- # About You * Name * What do you work on? * Games * Fun facts? --- # Class Resources * Website: <a href="http://bit.ly/PF-3341">http://bit.ly/PF-3341</a> * Piazza: <a href="http://piazza.com/ucr.ac.cr/spring2019/pf3341">http://piazza.com/ucr.ac.cr/spring2019/pf3341</a> --- # Class contents * Basic AI techniques * Planning, Search * Beliefs, Desires, and Intentions * Machine Learning: Neural Networks, Vector Models, Reinforcement Learning * Procedural Content Generation --- # Textbook * I will (loosely) follow *Artificial Intelligence and Games* by Georgios N. Yannakakis and Julian Togelius * There is a free PDF available on the [website](http://gameaibook.org/) * Another helpful reference for some parts is the *Procedural Content Generation* textbook by Noor Shaker, Julian Togelius, and Mark J. Nelson (also available as a free PDF from the [website](http://pcgbook.com/)) * Not free, but highly recommended is also *[Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach](http://aima.cs.berkeley.edu/)* by Stuart Russell and Peter Norvig --- # Class structure * Lectures introduce basic concepts * We will also read and discuss papers about particular applications for the concepts * Each student has to present one of these papers in class, and lead a discussion * You are all expected to read the papers *before class* to be able to discuss them in class * There will also be a project, in which you implement an AI technique of your choice --- # Grading * 30%: Paper presentation * 20%: Quizzes about the paper contents and discussion participation * 50%: Project, consisting of: - 10%: Project proposal with background, due 31/3 AoE. - 10%: Prototype/milestone submission, due 3/6 AoE. - 20%: Final submission, due 4/7 AoE. - 10%: Project presentation, 5/7 in class. * If you are signed up for the lab: Your project counts as the lab --- # Project For the project you can choose one of four (five) options: - Implement an AI technique from a paper (published at CIG, AIIDE, or similar) - Implement an agent for a (popular) game - Implement/improve an agent for a competition held at a conference - Implement procedural content generation modules - Make a suggestion --- # Project: Papers - Implement an AI technique from a paper - Published at a (game) AI conference or workshop, such as * [Artificial Intelligence in Interactive Digital Entertainment (AIIDE)](http://aiide.org) * [Computational Intelligence in Games (CIG)](http://www.ieee-cig.org/) * [Foundations of Digital Games (FDG)](http://www.foundationsofdigitalgames.org/) * [Experimental AI in Games (EXAG)](http://exag.org) * [Procedural Content Generation Workshop (PCG)](https://www.pcgworkshop.com/) - You can also pick a paper and apply the technique it describes to another domain - I have some suggestions, but feel free to propose something else --- # Project: Papers * [Procedural Generation of Roads](https://www.researchgate.net/publication/229707505_Procedural_Generation_of_Roads): Use A* and a custom cost function to determine where to place roads to connect two points in a 3D landscape * [A semantic approach to patch-based procedural generationof urban road networks](https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Rafael_Bidarra/publication/319370642_A_semantic_approach_to_patch-based_procedural_generation_of_urban_road_networks/links/59c185fca6fdcc69b92bc55a/A-semantic-approach-to-patch-based-procedural-generation-of-urban-road-networks.pdf): Generate roads to build a city environment based on predefined parts ("patches") * [Desire Path-Inspired Procedural Placement of Coins in a Platformer Game](http://www.exag.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/AIIDE-18_Upload_117.pdf): Figure out where to place coins in a platformer game depending on where players are more likely to go. --- # Project: Papers * [Poetic sound similarity vectors using phonetic features](https://aaai.org/ocs/index.php/AIIDE/AIIDE17/paper/view/15879/15227): Convert words into vectors representing how they sound in order to be able to compute similarity, e.g. for computational poetry * [Addressing the Elephant in the Room: Opinionated Virtual Characters](http://www.exag.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/AIIDE-18_Upload_123.pdf): Build a social simulation in which virtual characters form and exchange opinions on topics. * [Social Simulation for Social Justice](https://www.aaai.org/ocs/index.php/AIIDE/AIIDE17/paper/viewFile/15917/15221): Build a social simulation with agents that discuss social issues, such as privilege and power dynamics * [POMCP with Human Preferences in Settlers of Catan](https://www.aaai.org/ocs/index.php/AIIDE/AIIDE18/paper/viewFile/18091/17217): Build AI agents for Hanabi that use Partially Observable Monte Carlo Planning. --- # Project: Papers * [ProcDefense — A Game Framework for Procedural Player Skill Training](https://www.aaai.org/ocs/index.php/AIIDE/AIIDE17/paper/viewFile/15904/15232): Build a small game with several parameters to tweak difficulty that can dynamically adapt to the player's performance. * [Generating Levels That Teach Mechanics](https://arxiv.org/pdf/1807.06734.pdf): Generate levels for Super Mario that support the player in learning mechanics * [Tarot-based narrative generation](https://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=3235819): Use Tarot cards to generate stories. * [TaleSpin: An Interactive Program that Writes Stories](https://www.cs.utah.edu/nlp/papers/talespin-ijcai77.pdf): Build a system that uses character goals to tell fables. --- # Project: Papers These two papers are slightly different: You can use them as the basis for *your own* ideas. * [Glaive: A State-Space Narrative Planner Supporting Intentionality and Conflict](https://www.aaai.org/ocs/index.php/AIIDE/AIIDE14/paper/viewFile/8991/8931): Generate stories using a planner. * [Exhaustive and Semi-Exhaustive Procedural Content Generation](https://www.cs.du.edu/~sturtevant/papers/sturtevant18epcg.pdf): Make something that makes something (like levels, buildings, trees, ...) --- # Project: Competitions * Some of the game AI conferences also host competitions (like [CIG](https://project.dke.maastrichtuniversity.nl/cig2018/competitions/)) using different games * For the project you may choose to build or improve an AI agent according to the competition rules * If the timing works out, I would also encourage you to submit them * It is completely OK to use a previous winner (if it is open source) as the basis and improve it * Make sure to report your improvements and their effect on the agent's performance! --- # Project: Competitions * [Hearthstone AI Competition](http://www.is.ovgu.de/Research/HearthstoneAI.html) * [The Ms. Pac-Man Vs Ghost Team Competition](http://www.pacmanvghosts.co.uk/) * [StarCraft Competition](https://www.cs.mun.ca/~dchurchill/starcraftaicomp/) * [microRTS Competition](https://sites.google.com/site/micrortsaicompetition/home) * [Hanabi Competition](http://hanabi.fosslab.uk/description.html) * [Angry Birds Competition](https://aibirds.org/) * [Unity Obstacle Tower Challenge](https://www.aicrowd.com/challenges/unity-obstacle-tower-challenge) --- # Project: AI Agents - Another option for the project is to implement AI agents for a game of your choice - I would suggest a game that has an open source implementation (e.g. [Quake 3](https://github.com/id-Software/Quake-III-Arena)), or that is not too difficult to implement (e.g. a board game) - The *project* consists of implementing the AI agents, so if there is no implementation and you spend weeks building a nice user interface that's on you - To build the AI agents you should choose the appropriate techniques (we can discuss your options), and report how well they work --- # Project: Procedural Content Generation - Make something that makes something! - [Generominos](http://www.galaxykate.com/generominos/) can serve as guidelines/ideas - Implement several different inputs, transformers and blocks - Assemble into a pipeline - If multiple students want to work on this: agree on a common API for the modules (but everyone creates their own modules), so you can mix and match --- # Project: Procedural Content Generation <img src="/PF-3341/assets/img/gen1.jpg" width="45%"/><img src="/PF-3341/assets/img/gen2.jpg" width="45%"/> --- # An Example: Idle Hands (by [Kate Compton](www.galaxykate.com/)) <img src="/PF-3341/assets/img/idlehandsdiagram.png" width="45%"/> --- class: center, middle # Idle Hands (by [Kate Compton](www.galaxykate.com/)) <img src="/PF-3341/assets/img/idlehands-adult.gif" width="60%"/> --- # Lectures * 22/3: Behavior Trees, FSMs, etc. * 29/3: Planning * 5/4: Narrative * 12/4: Intentionality * 26/4: Belief Modeling * 3/5: Game Trees and Uncertainty * 10/5: Machine Learning * 17/5: Neural Networks * 24/5: Vector Models * 31/5: Reinforcement Learning * 7/6: Clustering * 14/6: Grammars * 21/6: ASP/CSP * 28/6: Noise and Fractals * 5/7: Project Presentations --- # Paper Presentations * 29/3: Behavior Trees, FSMs, etc. * [Handling Complexity in the Halo 2 AI](https://www.gamasutra.com/view/feature/130663/gdc_2005_proceeding_handling_.php?page=1), by Damian Isla, presented at GDC 2005 * Explains how Behavior Trees were used in Halo 2 to make editable, composable AI behaviors. * Industry paper! --- # Paper Presentations * 5/4: Planning * [Three States and a Plan: The A.I. of F.E.A.R.](http://alumni.media.mit.edu/~jorkin/gdc2006_orkin_jeff_fear.pdf), by Jeff Orkin, presented at GDC 2006 * The AI in F.E.A.R. uses a Finite State Machine with only 3 states, and relies on planning for more complex behaviors. * Also an industry paper! --- # Paper Presentations * 12/4: Narrative * [Fast and Diverse Narrative Planning through Novelty Pruning](http://nil.cs.uno.edu/publications/papers/farrell2016fast.pdf), by Rachelyn Farrel, Stephen G. Ware, presented at AIIDE 2016 * One goal of content generation is to create a large set of different content. For narrative, measuring "different", and creating a large variety of different narratives is challenging. This paper presents one approach to diversify solutions based on planning. --- # Paper Presentations * 26/4: Intentionality * [An Intentional AI for Hanabi](http://www.cig2017.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/08/paper_24.pdf), by Markus Eger, Chris Martens, and Marcela Alfaro Córdoba, presented at CIG 2017 * AI agents can play games involving communication, such as Hanabi, well with human players by utilizing intentionality. * Part of my dissertation work --- # Paper Presentations * 3/5: Belief Modeling * [Toward Characters Who Observe, Tell, Misremember, and Lie](https://www.aaai.org/ocs/index.php/AIIDE/AIIDE15/paper/viewFile/11667/11394), by James Owen Ryan, Adam Summerville, Michael Mateas, and Noah Wardrip-Fruin, presented at EXAG 2015 * Talk of the Town is a game in which knowledge gathering of non-player characters plays an important role. The paper describes how they simulate deception and forgetting in their virtual characters. --- # Paper Presentations * 10/5: Game Trees and Uncertainty * [Re-determinizing Information Set Monte Carlo Tree Search in Hanabi](https://arxiv.org/pdf/1902.06075.pdf), by James Goodman, arXiv preprint 2019 * Monte Carlo Tree Search is often used for games with hidden information (such as shuffled cards), and there are several extensions. This paper presents one such improvement with an application to Hanabi. * Description of the winner of the Hanabi competition at CIG 2018 --- # Paper Presentations * 17/5: Machine Learning * [Build order optimization in Starcraft](https://www.aaai.org/ocs/index.php/AIIDE/AIIDE11/paper/viewFile/4078/4407), by David Churchill and Michael Buro, presented at AIIDE 2011 * Describes abstractions and heuristics that can be used to define and approach the build order optimization problem in StarCraft. --- # Paper Presentations * 24/5: Neural Networks * [Super Mario as a String: Platformer Level Generation Via LSTMs](https://arxiv.org/pdf/1603.00930.pdf), by Adam Summerville and Michael Mateas, presented at DiGRA and FDG 2016 or * [Mystical Tutor: A Magic: The Gathering Design Assistant via Denoising Sequence-to-Sequence Learning](https://www.aaai.org/ocs/index.php/AIIDE/AIIDE16/paper/viewFile/13980/13599) by Adam Summerville and Michael Mateas, presented at AIIDE 2016 * Both use Long-Short Term Memory Recurrent Neural Networks to generate content, one levels for Super Mario, the other Magic cards --- # Paper Presentations * 31/5: Vector Models * [dAIrector: Automatic Story Beat Generation through Knowledge Synthesis](http://ceur-ws.org/Vol-2321/paper8.pdf) by Markus Eger and Kory Mathewson, presented at INT 2018 * We describe a system that can be used as a director in an improv theater setting, generating prompts for the actors and giving them hints on how to proceed with a scene, based on the already presented prompts. * I'm probably biased, but I think this is a really neat application of vector models. --- # Paper Presentations * 7/6: Reinforcement Learning * [Improving Generalization Ability in a Puzzle Game Using Reinforcement Learning](http://www.cig2017.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/08/paper_71.pdf) by Hiroya Oonishi and Hitoshi Iima, presented CIG 2017 * Shows work on a game called Geometry Friends, in which two different shapes have to collaborate to solve puzzles, and how reinforcement learning can be applied to the game to better solve unseen levels. --- # Paper Presentations * 14/6: Clustering * [A Recommender System for Hero Line-Ups in MOBA Games](https://www.aaai.org/ocs/index.php/AIIDE/AIIDE17/paper/viewFile/15902/15164) by Lucas Hanke and Luiz Chaimowicz, presented AIIDE 2017 * Presents a system that suggests which heroes players should pick in DOTA2 to increase their chances of winning, based on which heroes have already been picked. --- # Paper Presentations * 21/6: Grammars * [Procedural Modeling of Interconnected Structures](http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.682.2517&rep=rep1&type=pdf) by Lars Krecklau and Leif Kobbelt, presented at Computer Graphics Forum 2011 * As we will see, Grammars can be used to generate 3D structures. In this paper, the authors describe a method to add connections to such structures, such as supports for a rollercoaster that should be placed such that they don't intersect other parts of the geometry. --- # Paper Presentations * 28/6: ASP/CSP * [A Logical Approach to Building Dungeons: Answer Set Programming for Hierarchical Procedural Content Generation in Roguelike Games](https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/f69b/f76b77da89bfd7135b9c60d2b9b10fc1ac20.pdf) by Anthony J. Smith and Joanna J. Bryson, presented at the 50th Anniversary Convention of the AISB, 2014 * Describes how to generate dungeons using Answer Set Programming to ensure that the generated levels have the desired properties. --- # Paper Presentations * Pick your three (or more) favorite papers and send me an ordered list *by next Friday* * I will do my best to accommodate your preferences, but in case of a tie I will give preference to whoever sent their requests first * However: Even if you send your email *right now* that does not mean you are guaranteed to get your top pick * It helps if you know the games the papers are talking about, but is generally not necessary * If you have a paper you think is a better fit for some topic (or if you find one while preparing your presentation), please let me know --- class: middle, center # What is AI? --- # What is AI? * If you ask 20 AI researchers what AI is, you will get 25 different definitions * Some include Machine Learning, some say ML and AI are distinct things * Commonly, "the science of intelligent agents" * Behavior that can be applied in unknown situations * Or, as Douglas R. Hofstadter said "AI is whatever hasn't been done yet" * "Everything in AI is either representation or search" --- class: middle, center # What are games? --- # What are games? * Just as with AI, there is no agreed upon definition of "game" * Commonly: There are goals and rules * Bernard Suits (Philosopher): "Playing a game is the voluntary effort to overcome unnecessary obstacles" * But there are certainly games that don't have goals? --- class: center, middle <img src="/CI-2700/assets/img/minecraft.jpg" width="95%"/> (Minecraft) --- # What about this one? <img src="/CI-2700/assets/img/bandersnatch.jpg" width="90%"/> (Bandersnatch) --- # Digital Entertainment * The reason this class is not called "game AI" is because I want to make it clear that we're also talking about things that may or may not be games (depending on your definition) * Another example would be computer-generated stories, or improv theater * "Games", classical or experimental, are an important part of Digital Entertainment, though --- class: center, middle # Some Basics --- # Game AI - In a (classical) game, AI can be used for many different purposes - NPC behaviors are usually AI driven (with various complexity) - You can generate content (names, trees, buildings, stories, mechanics, entire games, ...) using AI - If you want to know what your players are doing you can use AI techniques for player analytics - We will mostly cover NPC behavior and procedural content generation in this class --- class: center, middle # An example ## Let's talk about the oldest survival game in which you have to escape from the Undead -- ## Pacman! --- # Pacman <img src="/CI-2700/assets/img/pacman.png" width="50%"/> --- # Pacman Ghost AI * There are four ghosts: Blinky, Pinky, Inky, and Clyde * They chase Pacman * But they all have different "personalities" * How? * What are they actually doing? --- class: small # Example: Pacman Ghost AI Some disclaimers: * The ghosts actually have three modes: scatter, chase and frightened * In scatter mode each of them tries to get to his own corner * In frightened mode, they move randomly and can be eaten * Scatter and chase modes alternate temporally; frightened mode is triggered by eating a power-up * We will only be talking about chase mode --- # Example: Pacman Ghost AI: The maze <img src="/CI-2700/assets/img/pacmanmaze.png" width="50%"/> --- # Example: Pacman Ghost AI * Each ghost has a current position/cell and a target position/cell * Ghosts can not turn around * Whenever a ghost comes to an intersection, it has to decide where to go * This decision is based on what their target is --- # Example: Pacman Ghost AI * Only Blinky is actually "chasing" Pacman * Pinky is trying to get to where Pacman "will be" * Inky does something weird, his target depends on Pacman's position *and* Blinky's position * Clyde tries to chase Pacman if he is far away, but if he gets too close he will try to go back to his own corner --- # Example: Pacman Ghost AI: Pathfinding * How do the ghosts calculate the path to their target cell? * They don't! * Instead, before an intersection, they look at the next cell in each direction, and pick the direction that is closest to the target <img src="/CI-2700/assets/img/ghostdecision.png" width="80%"/> --- # Example: Pacman Ghost AI What is the problem with this approach? -- <img src="/CI-2700/assets/img/cantreach.png" width="80%"/> --- # NPC Behavior - The first rule of game AI (in the industry): It does not matter how smart/dumb your NPCs are, as long as the game plays well - We will discuss academic approaches to AI that may have their own goals - There are really two very different criteria to optimize for: * Human perception * Win rate - These two may not always align (imagine bots in a shooter that have perfect aim) --- class: middle, center # Procedural Content Generation --- class: medium # Procedural Content Generation * Making games requires a lot of effort * Apart from coding, there are also art assets, music, a story, etc. that need to be created * Some of these creation processes can be (partially) automated, or assisted: Procedural Content Generation (PCG) * Two problems - Generating content is not always easy - Generating *good* content is usually even harder --- # Procedural Content Generation * Procedural Content Generation is widely used in the industry * For example: Diablo 3 generates dungeons, weapons, even names for the enemies * Usually this is done by combining predefined patterns in a structured way * We will also discuss more experimental ways to generate content --- # Overenthusiastic generation <img src="/CI-2700/assets/img/keyforge.png" width="100%"/> (Keyforge) --- class: center, middle # Logic --- # Why Logic? * As mentioned earlier, everything in AI is either representation or search * Logical formulas are often a very convenient representation * Why convenient? - Can be generated automatically - Can be processed automatically - Are very expressive * We will use logic extensively! --- # Propositional Logic * I'm assuming you are all familiar with propositional logic? * `\(a \wedge b\)`, `\(a \vee b\)`, `\(\neg a\)` * If we have some interpretation S of a and b, we can determine truth values * `\( S \models a \wedge b \)` iff a and b are both true in S * So what is S? --- # Interpretations * S is an *interpretation*, which assigns truth values to every constant * Sometimes it is convenient to represent S as a set that contains everything that is true * Conversely, everything that is not in the set is false * You may have heard the term *model*: An interpretation under which a formula is satisfied * A formula is a tautology if *all* interpretations are models --- # Predicate Logic * Representing any non-trivial state in propositional logic is tedious (imagine chess: there has to be one variable for each possible location of each piece) * We will use Predicate Logic instead, which represents the world as objects and relations between them * Objects: constants * Relations: Sets of n-tuples of objects, called predicates (n is the *arity* of the predicate) * (Functors: Assignments of n-tuples of objects to objects) * We also have sets of objects, and quantifiers `\( \forall, \exists \)` --- # Predicate Logic: Example $$ \mathit{human}(\mathit{socrates})\\\\ \forall h: \mathit{human}(h) \rightarrow \mathit{mortal}(h)\\\\ \mathit{friends}(\mathit{socrates}, \mathit{plato}) $$ -- `\(\mathit{human}(h)\)` is an unary relation, i.e. a set of 1-tuples/single elements. It is often more convenient to write: $$ \forall h \in \mathit{human}: \mathit{mortal}(h) $$ -- Using set-operators, we could also write `\((\mathit{socrates}, \mathit{plato}) \in \mathit{friends}\)` In fact, that's how our interpretations work. --- # Predicate Logic: Interpretations * Technically, an interpretation has to assign values to all our constants, since Socrates and Plato could be the same person in an interpretation! We will typically use the *unique-names assumption* to avoid such problems. * Then, the interpretation has to contain definitions for every predicate, in the form of a set of tuples. * The *closed world assumption* states that everything we don't know to be true (i.e. everything not in the set representing a predicate) is in fact false. * Using these assumptions, we can represent our interpretation as a collection of sets, one for each predicate. --- # Actions? * We often want to represent a world that is changing, rather than just static facts * Simple solution: Let's use constants representing (discrete) times, and increase the arity of each predicate by one to account for time * For example, `\(\mathit{human}(\mathit{socrates})\)` becomes `\(\mathit{human}(\mathit{socrates}, 0)\)`, or `\(\forall t \in T: \mathit{human}(\mathit{socrates}, t)\)` * An *action* is something that changes some truth values over time, often represented as an implication, like `\(\mathit{alive}(\mathit{socrates}, 400 \text{BCE}) \rightarrow \neg \mathit{alive}(\mathit{socrates}, 399 \text{BCE})\)` * This can be generalized with quantifiers and special predicates that indicate when actions occur, if needed --- # The Yale Shooting Problem * Consider Fred, a turkey, and a gun * At time 0, Fred is alive and the gun is unloaded * We load the gun, so that at time 1 the gun is loaded * Then we wait * At time 2 we shoot, such that at time 3 Fred is dead --- # The Yale Shooting Problem $$ \mathit{alive}(\mathit{Fred}, 0)\\\\ \neg \mathit{loaded}(\mathit{Gun}, 0)\\\\ \neg \mathit{loaded}(\mathit{Gun}, 0) \rightarrow \mathit{loaded}(\mathit{Gun}, 1)\\\\ \mathit{loaded}(\mathit{Gun}, 2) \rightarrow \neg \mathit{alive}(\mathit{Fred}, 3) $$ -- What about `\(\mathit{alive}(\mathit{Fred}, 1)\)`? What about `\(\mathit{loaded}(\mathit{Gun}, 2)\)`? Idea: Let's say "the least" number of things change each time step! -- The turkey could still die at time step 1 and stay dead ... --- # The Frame Problem - The Yale Shooting Problem is an illustration of the Frame Problem: Everything that is not changed by an action (the "frame") should stay the same - But how would we even write this in logical formulas? - There are several solutions! - One approach: Frame axioms. For each action state what the action leaves unchanged. This may require a lot of extra formulas. - Another approach: Distinguish states and actions, and represent changes as a transition system --- # Transition System Approach - We start with a state `\(s_0 = \{\mathit{alive}(\mathit{Fred}), \neg \mathit{loaded}(\mathit{Gun}) \}\)`, which we can use for logical queries such as `\(s_0 \models \mathit{alive}(\mathit{Fred}) \)` - We have an action `load(Gun)` which turns a state into another state: - If the Gun is not loaded, it becomes loaded - If the Gun is already loaded, nothing happens - `\(s_1 = \{\mathit{alive}(\mathit{Fred}), \mathit{loaded}(\mathit{Gun}) \}\)` - Now we can query `\(s_1 \models \mathit{alive}(\mathit{Fred})\)` --- # Transition System Approach - This approach forms the basis for many of the techniques we are going to discuss, especially the planning-based ones - However, it also has drawbacks: If our states only represent individual time steps, we can't (easily) query things like "how long was Fred alive" - [Logic and AI](https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-ai/) - [The Frame Problem](https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/frame-problem/) --- # To Dos * Come up with project suggestions, deadline for the proposal: 31/3 AoE. I encourage you to discuss your ideas with me beforehand. * Decide which paper you want to present, and send me an email with your top three (or more) choices by *next Friday 22/3*. * Sign up for Piazza: <a href="http://piazza.com/ucr.ac.cr/spring2019/pf3341">http://piazza.com/ucr.ac.cr/spring2019/pf3341</a>